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India
Full section on this page
National Green Hydrogen Mission: 5 MT/yr target by 2030 · Reliance, Adani, NTPC pilots already live.
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Saudi Arabia
Dedicated project page →
NEOM Green Hydrogen (Helios) — 4 GW electrolysis, $8.4bn, one of the world's largest committed green H₂ projects.
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Australia
Full country profile →
Asian Renewable Energy Hub — 26 GW wind+solar target, 1.6 MT/yr green H₂ for export.
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Norway
Full country profile →
Yara Porsgrunn — world's first industrial-scale green ammonia plant, operational since 2024.
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Oman
Jump to project details
ACWA Power + OQ, Dhofar region · targeting 1 MT/yr green hydrogen by 2030.
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Europe (Spain-led)
Full country profile →
HyDeal Ambition — 67 GW production target, aiming for €1.5/kg delivered to industrial buyers by 2030.
Want the full project list with GPS and financing detail? See all major green hydrogen projects ↓
"Hydrogen is the simplest atom — one proton, one electron. Yet it is the most abundant element in the universe. Every star is powered by hydrogen fusion. Every ocean is two hydrogen atoms for every oxygen. We do not lack hydrogen. We lack the cheap energy to free it from the molecules that hold it. That is the entire hydrogen economy challenge, stated in one sentence."
— The Energy Codex · thecodex.expert
Flagship asset
One of the world's largest green-hydrogen projects — ~4 GW of solar and wind making ~600 t/day of hydrogen, exported as green ammonia.
Cluster 1 · What is it?
What hydrogen is — precisely
Hydrogen is not a fuel that comes from the ground — it's a fuel you have to make. On Earth, hydrogen is almost always bonded to other atoms (in water, in natural gas, in organic matter). To use hydrogen as fuel, you first have to separate it from whatever it's attached to. That separation requires energy. Then when you burn hydrogen or use it in a fuel cell, you get that energy back (minus losses). The key question is always: where did the energy to make the hydrogen come from? If from renewables — clean. If from coal — not clean. Hydrogen itself burns cleanly — the only by-product is water vapour. But that does not tell you how clean the hydrogen is, only how clean the burning is.
Hydrogen as energy carrier, not source: Unlike coal, oil, or uranium, hydrogen does not occur naturally in usable form. You must expend energy to produce it, then you get most (but not all) of that energy back when you use it. It is therefore an energy carrier — like a rechargeable battery, but in molecular form. The "hydrogen economy" concept proposes using excess renewable electricity to produce hydrogen when supply exceeds demand, storing it, and using it when and where electricity cannot directly be used (shipping, aviation, industrial heat, fertiliser).
Why hydrogen is hard to handle: Very low density (0.09 kg/m³ at standard conditions) — must be compressed to 350–700 bar or liquefied at −253°C for practical storage. Small molecules leak through most materials. Highly flammable (4–75% flammability range in air — wider than natural gas or petrol). Existing pipeline infrastructure is largely not compatible without modification (hydrogen embrittlement of steel).
Why hydrogen is hard to handle: Very low density (0.09 kg/m³ at standard conditions) — must be compressed to 350–700 bar or liquefied at −253°C for practical storage. Small molecules leak through most materials. Highly flammable (4–75% flammability range in air — wider than natural gas or petrol). Existing pipeline infrastructure is largely not compatible without modification (hydrogen embrittlement of steel).
Source: IEA Global Hydrogen Review 2024
Hydrogen's energy density by mass (142 MJ/kg LHV) is the highest of any chemical fuel. However, its volumetric energy density is low: 0.01 MJ/L at standard conditions vs. 34 MJ/L for petrol. Compression to 700 bar gives ~4.7 MJ/L; liquefaction (−253°C) gives ~8.5 MJ/L. Fuel cells (PEM — proton exchange membrane) convert H₂ + ½O₂ → H₂O with an efficiency of 50–65% (LHV), significantly higher than internal combustion engines (25–35%). Round-trip efficiency for Power-to-H₂-to-Power: ~30–40% (electrolysis ~65–75% × fuel cell ~55–65%). Compared to pumped hydro (~75–85%) or batteries (~85–95%). Hydrogen's role is therefore not primarily as a grid storage medium but in sectors where direct electrification is difficult: steelmaking (replacing coking coal in direct reduced iron — DRI processes), shipping (fuel cell or combustion), aviation (liquid hydrogen), and industrial process heat above 400°C.
Source: IEA Future of Hydrogen 2023 · IRENA Green Hydrogen Cost Reduction 2023
~120 Mt/yrGlobal production (IEA 2024)
142 MJ/kgEnergy density — highest of any fuel
~$6/kgGreen hydrogen cost 2023 (IEA)
~$1–2/kgTarget for cost competitiveness
~96%Current production from fossil fuels
Cluster 3 · The colour system explained
The hydrogen colour code — what each colour actually means
The hydrogen industry uses colours to indicate production method and associated carbon emissions. These are industry conventions — not regulated classifications. The IEA uses them. The IRENA uses them. They are useful shorthand but they simplify complex real-world situations.
🟢 Green hydrogen
Produced by electrolysis of water using renewable electricity. Only by-products: oxygen and water. Zero carbon during production (though manufacturing the electrolyser and solar/wind hardware has embodied carbon). Current cost: approximately $4–8/kg. Target: $1–2/kg by 2030.
Source: IEA Global Hydrogen Review 2024
⚪ Grey hydrogen
Produced by steam methane reforming (SMR) of natural gas without carbon capture. Approximately 96% of current global hydrogen production. Each tonne of grey hydrogen produces approximately 9–12 tonnes of CO₂. Current cost: approximately $1–2/kg. The status quo that green hydrogen must displace.
Source: IEA Global Hydrogen Review 2024
🔵 Blue hydrogen
Produced by SMR of natural gas with carbon capture and storage (CCS). Captures 85–95% of CO₂ produced. Remaining emissions: approximately 1.5–4 tonnes CO₂ per tonne H₂ (vs. 9–12 for grey). Current cost: approximately $2–4/kg. Contentious: depends on methane leakage rate and CCS capture efficiency.
Source: IEA Future of Hydrogen 2023
🟠 Brown / Black hydrogen
Produced from coal or lignite gasification without carbon capture. Highest carbon emissions — approximately 19–25 tonnes CO₂ per tonne H₂. Used primarily in China where coal is abundant and cheap. Cheapest to produce in coal-rich regions but highest climate cost.
Source: IRENA 2023
🟡 Yellow hydrogen
Produced by electrolysis using grid electricity (mix of sources). Carbon intensity depends entirely on the electricity grid mix. Not well-defined internationally — some sources use "yellow" for solar-specific electrolysis.
Source: IRENA convention note 2023
🩷 Pink hydrogen
Produced by electrolysis using nuclear electricity. Zero carbon during production (nuclear lifecycle: ~12 g CO₂/kWh per IPCC AR6). Small-scale projects in France and South Korea. The IAEA considers it a valid low-carbon pathway. Also called "purple" or "red" by some sources.
Source: IAEA · IEA
🔮 Turquoise hydrogen
Produced by methane pyrolysis — splitting methane into hydrogen and solid carbon (not CO₂). The solid carbon is potentially a valuable product (carbon black, graphite). No large-scale commercial plants exist yet. BASF, Monolith Materials, and others are developing pyrolysis-based hydrogen.
Source: IRENA Innovation Outlook 2022
🍃 Natural hydrogen (Gold)
Naturally occurring hydrogen seeping from geological formations — found in Mali, USA, Russia, Australia. Some researchers call it "gold" hydrogen. Formation mechanisms include serpentinisation of olivine rocks with water. Very early stage research — no commercial production. Potentially no production energy required.
Source: USGS Geological Survey · Nature Energy 2023
Note: colour codes are industry conventions, not regulated standards. The IEA's Global Hydrogen Review 2024 and IRENA use them as described above.
Cluster 5 · How hydrogen is produced
The two main production methods — SMR and electrolysis
Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) — how 96% of hydrogen is made today
Natural gas (CH₄) reacts with steam at ~850°C over a catalyst:
CH₄ + H₂O → CO + 3H₂ (steam reforming)
CO + H₂O → CO₂ + H₂ (water-gas shift)
Net: CH₄ + 2H₂O → CO₂ + 4H₂
Each tonne of hydrogen produced releases ~9 tonnes of CO₂ (grey hydrogen). Production cost: approximately $1–2/kg at current gas prices. Essentially all industrial hydrogen today is made this way — for fertiliser (Haber-Bosch ammonia), petroleum refining, and chemical production.
Blue hydrogen adds CCS to this process — capturing the CO₂ before it is released. Source: IEA Hydrogen Review 2024
CH₄ + H₂O → CO + 3H₂ (steam reforming)
CO + H₂O → CO₂ + H₂ (water-gas shift)
Net: CH₄ + 2H₂O → CO₂ + 4H₂
Each tonne of hydrogen produced releases ~9 tonnes of CO₂ (grey hydrogen). Production cost: approximately $1–2/kg at current gas prices. Essentially all industrial hydrogen today is made this way — for fertiliser (Haber-Bosch ammonia), petroleum refining, and chemical production.
Blue hydrogen adds CCS to this process — capturing the CO₂ before it is released. Source: IEA Hydrogen Review 2024
Electrolysis — how green hydrogen is made
Water (H₂O) is split into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity:
2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂
Key electrolyser types:
PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane): Compact, fast response, high purity. Preferred for coupling with variable renewables. Most expensive. Companies: ITM Power, Nel, Cummins.
Alkaline: Mature, lowest cost, slower response. Most commercial deployments.
Solid Oxide (SOEC): Highest efficiency at high temperature (700–800°C). Best suited for industrial co-location.
Cost: ~$5–8/kg at $50/MWh electricity (2023). Must reach ~$1–2/kg for widespread adoption. Key: electricity cost is ~75% of green hydrogen production cost — low-cost renewable electricity is essential. Source: IRENA Green Hydrogen 2023
2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂
Key electrolyser types:
PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane): Compact, fast response, high purity. Preferred for coupling with variable renewables. Most expensive. Companies: ITM Power, Nel, Cummins.
Alkaline: Mature, lowest cost, slower response. Most commercial deployments.
Solid Oxide (SOEC): Highest efficiency at high temperature (700–800°C). Best suited for industrial co-location.
Cost: ~$5–8/kg at $50/MWh electricity (2023). Must reach ~$1–2/kg for widespread adoption. Key: electricity cost is ~75% of green hydrogen production cost — low-cost renewable electricity is essential. Source: IRENA Green Hydrogen 2023
Cluster 5 · Uses and applications
Where hydrogen is used — and where it could be used
Current uses — already at scale
Fertilisers (54%): Haber-Bosch ammonia synthesis for urea and ammonium nitrate fertilisers. Feeds approximately 40–50% of the world's population (FAO). Entirely dependent on hydrogen — currently almost all grey.
Petroleum refining (35%): Hydrocracking and hydrodesulphurisation in oil refineries — producing cleaner fuels from heavier crude. India's refinery network is a major hydrogen consumer.
Chemical feedstock (11%): Methanol production, plastics, pharmaceuticals. Source: IEA Global Hydrogen Review 2024
Petroleum refining (35%): Hydrocracking and hydrodesulphurisation in oil refineries — producing cleaner fuels from heavier crude. India's refinery network is a major hydrogen consumer.
Chemical feedstock (11%): Methanol production, plastics, pharmaceuticals. Source: IEA Global Hydrogen Review 2024
Future uses — where green hydrogen is targeted
Steel: Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) using green hydrogen instead of coking coal. SSAB/HYBRIT (Sweden) produced the world's first hydrogen-reduced steel in 2021. Thyssenkrupp, ArcelorMittal, POSCO have announced hydrogen steel projects.
Shipping: Hydrogen or green ammonia (made from green hydrogen) as a marine fuel. IMO 2050 net-zero strategy depends heavily on this pathway.
Aviation: Liquid hydrogen (LH₂) for aircraft — Airbus ZEROe concept targeting 2035 service entry. Requires entirely new aircraft and airport infrastructure.
Long-duration energy storage: Power-to-hydrogen-to-power for seasonal grid balancing (30–40% round-trip efficiency — less efficient than batteries but stores for months).
Source: IEA Future of Hydrogen 2023 · IRENA 2023
Shipping: Hydrogen or green ammonia (made from green hydrogen) as a marine fuel. IMO 2050 net-zero strategy depends heavily on this pathway.
Aviation: Liquid hydrogen (LH₂) for aircraft — Airbus ZEROe concept targeting 2035 service entry. Requires entirely new aircraft and airport infrastructure.
Long-duration energy storage: Power-to-hydrogen-to-power for seasonal grid balancing (30–40% round-trip efficiency — less efficient than batteries but stores for months).
Source: IEA Future of Hydrogen 2023 · IRENA 2023
Cluster 2 · Q9 · India and hydrogen
India's National Green Hydrogen Mission
India's hydrogen ambition — one of the world's most ambitious
India's government approved the National Green Hydrogen Mission in , with the target of producing 5 million tonnes per year of green hydrogen by 2030 — which would represent approximately 4% of projected global green hydrogen demand. Total outlay: approximately ₹19,744 crore (~$2.4 billion) for incentives under the SIGHT (Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition) programme.
Why India is well-positioned: India has excellent renewable energy resources (solar irradiation, wind potential), a large fertiliser and refinery sector that currently uses grey hydrogen, a skilled engineering workforce, and abundant coastal land for green hydrogen export facilities.
Key projects announced (as of ):
• Reliance Industries — 100 GW green energy + green hydrogen + green chemicals complex, Gujarat
• Adani Group — 1 Mt/yr green hydrogen production target by 2030
• NTPC — Green hydrogen project at Simhadri, Andhra Pradesh
• Bharat Petroleum / Indian Oil — green hydrogen blending pilots
Challenge: Green hydrogen cost must fall from approximately $5–6/kg today to approximately $1–2/kg for export competitiveness. India's cheap renewables give it a structural cost advantage over Europe and Japan. Source: MNRE India — National Green Hydrogen Mission 2023
Why India is well-positioned: India has excellent renewable energy resources (solar irradiation, wind potential), a large fertiliser and refinery sector that currently uses grey hydrogen, a skilled engineering workforce, and abundant coastal land for green hydrogen export facilities.
Key projects announced (as of ):
• Reliance Industries — 100 GW green energy + green hydrogen + green chemicals complex, Gujarat
• Adani Group — 1 Mt/yr green hydrogen production target by 2030
• NTPC — Green hydrogen project at Simhadri, Andhra Pradesh
• Bharat Petroleum / Indian Oil — green hydrogen blending pilots
Challenge: Green hydrogen cost must fall from approximately $5–6/kg today to approximately $1–2/kg for export competitiveness. India's cheap renewables give it a structural cost advantage over Europe and Japan. Source: MNRE India — National Green Hydrogen Mission 2023
Cluster 4 · Pioneers
People who shaped hydrogen energy
William Nicholson & Anthony Carlisle · 1800 · First electrolysis of water
On 2 May 1800, just six weeks after Alessandro Volta invented the first battery, British chemists William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle used the new voltaic pile to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen — the first electrolysis. This demonstration proved that water is H₂O (two hydrogen, one oxygen) and showed that electricity could drive chemical reactions. Every green hydrogen electrolyser in the world is a scaled-up, technologically refined version of what they did that day. Source: Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy (1800).
Fritz Haber & Carl Bosch · 1909–1913 · Made hydrogen feed the world
Fritz Haber's laboratory discovery (1909) of ammonia synthesis from nitrogen and hydrogen, and Carl Bosch's industrial scaling at BASF (1913), created the Haber-Bosch process. This is the single most important application of hydrogen in history — producing the nitrogen fertilisers that, according to FAO estimates, now feed approximately 40–50% of the world's population. Both received Nobel Prizes. Haber's legacy is permanently complex because he also developed chlorine gas weapons used in WWI. Source: Nobel Foundation · FAO.
Cluster 11 · Future
What institutional sources project
Cluster 12 · Questions
Six questions answered
What is the difference between green and grey hydrogen?
The colour indicates how the hydrogen was made and how much CO₂ was produced making it. Grey hydrogen — about 96% of today's global production — is made from natural gas via steam methane reforming (SMR), releasing approximately 9–12 tonnes of CO₂ per tonne of hydrogen. It costs approximately $1–2/kg. Green hydrogen is made by splitting water using electricity from renewable sources (solar, wind). When burned or used in a fuel cell, the only by-product is water — no CO₂. It currently costs approximately $4–8/kg. The entire "hydrogen economy" ambition depends on bringing green hydrogen costs down to compete with grey. Source: IEA Global Hydrogen Review 2024.
Source: IEA Global Hydrogen Review 2024
Is hydrogen a fuel or an energy carrier?
Hydrogen is an energy carrier, not a primary fuel. A primary fuel contains energy naturally stored in it (oil, coal, uranium). An energy carrier requires energy input to produce and delivers energy when used — like a battery. You must spend energy to produce hydrogen (from water or natural gas), then you recover most (but not all) of that energy when you use hydrogen in a fuel cell or by burning it. The purpose of hydrogen as an energy carrier is to move and store energy in a form useful for sectors that cannot easily use electricity directly — shipping, aviation, steel production, industrial process heat. Source: IEA · IRENA.
Source: IEA Future of Hydrogen 2023 · IRENA Green Hydrogen 2023
What does India's Green Hydrogen Mission aim to do?
India's National Green Hydrogen Mission, approved in , targets producing 5 million tonnes per year of green hydrogen by 2030, with total government incentive outlay of approximately ₹19,744 crore (~$2.4 billion) under the SIGHT programme. The ambition is to use India's excellent renewable energy resources (one of the world's lowest solar and wind electricity costs) to produce green hydrogen competitively and export it, while also decarbonising India's large fertiliser and refinery sector which currently depends entirely on grey hydrogen. Key industrial commitments include Reliance Industries' planned 100 GW green energy complex and Adani Group's 1 Mt/year target. The mission also includes a ₹1,466 crore incentive for domestic electrolyser manufacturing. Source: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) India, 2023.
Source: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy India — National Green Hydrogen Mission 2023
Can hydrogen replace petrol in cars?
Technically, yes — hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCEVs) exist commercially (Toyota Mirai, Hyundai Nexo) and use hydrogen to generate electricity in a fuel cell that powers an electric motor. They produce only water from the tailpipe. However, FCEVs are unlikely to replace petrol cars at scale because battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are more efficient: the round-trip efficiency of electricity → hydrogen → electricity → motion is approximately 25–35%, versus electricity → battery → motion at approximately 75–85%. For cars, BEVs use the same electricity far more efficiently. Hydrogen's transport role is more likely in heavy trucks (long-range, heavy load), trains (non-electrified lines), shipping, and aviation — where batteries are impractical due to weight and range. Source: IEA Global EV Outlook 2024 · IEA Future of Hydrogen 2023.
Source: IEA Future of Hydrogen 2023 · IEA Global EV Outlook 2024
How is hydrogen stored and transported?
Hydrogen storage is one of the key challenges of the hydrogen economy. Options: (1) Compressed gas at 350–700 bar in steel or composite cylinders — used in fuel cell vehicles today. Heavy and bulky. (2) Liquid hydrogen at −253°C (just 20°C above absolute zero) — very energy-dense by volume (~8.5 MJ/L) but requires energy to liquefy and good insulation to prevent boil-off. Used for space rockets. (3) Conversion to ammonia (NH₃) — easier to liquefy (−33°C), ships well, can be converted back to hydrogen at destination. (4) Metal hydrides — hydrogen absorbed into metal alloys. Safe, dense, but heavy and slow charge/discharge. For bulk transport, conversion to ammonia is currently considered the most practical. Source: IRENA Green Hydrogen 2023 · IEA.
Source: IRENA Green Hydrogen and its Supply Chain 2023 · IEA Future of Hydrogen 2023
How much does green hydrogen cost, and when will it be competitive?
Green hydrogen costs approximately $4–8/kg in 2023 (IEA) — compared to grey hydrogen at approximately $1–2/kg. The cost of green hydrogen is dominated (~75%) by the electricity input cost. In regions with very cheap renewables (India, Chile, Saudi Arabia, Australia), green hydrogen production costs are closer to the lower end. The IEA projects green hydrogen could reach approximately $2/kg in best locations by 2030 and $1/kg by 2035–2040. For widespread industrial adoption, approximately $1–2/kg is typically cited as the target for competitiveness with grey hydrogen plus a carbon cost. Source: IEA Global Hydrogen Review 2024 · IRENA 2023.
Source: IEA Global Hydrogen Review 2024 · IRENA Green Hydrogen Cost Reduction 2023
Connected
Sources
Every source used on this page
Primary sources
IEAGlobal Hydrogen Review 2024 · Future of Hydrogen 2023 · NZE hydrogen projectionsiea.org/global-hydrogen-review-2024
IRENAGreen Hydrogen Cost Reduction 2023 · Renewable Ammonia 2022 · Global Hydrogen Tradeirena.org/green-hydrogen-2023
MNRE IndiaNational Green Hydrogen Mission 2023 · SIGHT schememnre.gov.in/national-green-hydrogen-mission
IAEANuclear hydrogen production · Pink hydrogen pathwaysiaea.org/hydrogen-production
Nobel FoundationFritz Haber Nobel Prize 1918 · Carl Bosch Nobel Prize 1931nobelprize.org
FAONitrogen fertiliser and food security · Haber-Bosch population analysisfao.org